Drawing I | Depth and Perspective

Depth and Perspective

In this lesson, we will explore various methods for creating a sense of space and the illusion of depth in our drawings.

In this lecture, some rules of thumb.

To create a drawing that we consider "realistic" we need to think of the surface of our paper as a window looking into a drawn reality.

To draw in perspective, we need to understand the effect of linear perspective on what we see in the world. We also need to develop skills in drawing basic geometric forms. We'll use guidelines, plumb lines, and other proportional measures to keep the parts of our drawing in proportion.

Once we've got all of that under our belts, we can move beyond linear perspective to use scale, overlap, and other compositional techniques to create depth and realism in our work.

The Nave of the Church, Filippo Brunelleschi, circa 1419

The theory of linear perspective was developed during the Renaissance and is generally attributed to the Florentine architect Brunelleschi. It is a mathematical method of organizing the space around us, to realistically portray depth in our drawing.

In the first part of the lesson, I will discuss some essentials of linear perspective. (If you have taken Intro to Drawing student, you will recognize the concepts and examples used.)

Despite the geometry involved in linear perspective, we will not be exploring the mathematical formulas. We will be focusing on drawing what we see and working visually instead.

You will find linear perspective useful, as understanding the fundamental laws of perspective can help us create the illusion of realism and depth in our drawings.

We'll use our understanding of linear perspective as a springboard for learning some new concepts, including depth, perspective, and proportion.

Planes, Forms, and Volume

At a fundamental level, the theory of linear perspective is the calculation of angles between planes in space. A plane, if you recall, is any flat surface.

A series of enclosed lines creates a plane.

These planes, when combined, create forms. Forms that appear to be three-dimensional also appear to have mass and volume.

When forms are placed in relation to each other, a sense of depth can be created by scale, overlapping, and depth of field, as we will discover later in this lesson.

Eye Level

The first step in creating realistic depth using linear perspective is to establish the eye level. It is a reference point by which we will measure and compare all of the planes in our subject. The eye level relates to the center of your vision.

The eye level can be thought of as a horizontal line that runs from eye to eye.

Horizon Line

When we look straight forward, such as when we're outside looking at a landscape, we can see the horizon line. The horizon line is the point in the distance where the sky and the earth meet.

The eye level is literally level with the eyes. If you change the angle of your head, your eye level also changes. When we stare straight ahead, our eye level and the horizon are the same. If you tilt your head up, your eye level is raised in relation to the horizon. In this view you will see more sky. If you tilt your head down, you will see more earth. The horizon will appear above your eye level.

A change will also occur if you tilt your head from side to side.

The location of an object in relation to your eye level can greatly affect how much of the object you see.

Object at eye level

If an object is centered in your line of sight, you may not notice the effects of eye level on perspective at all. But if you raise or lower the object above or below your eye level, you'll now see the top or bottom of the object.

Object above eye level

Notice that when the object rests above our eye level, we can see the bottom of the object. When the object rests below our eye level, we are able to see the top:

Object below eye level

When thinking about eye level, imagine you are in a swimming pool with your head half in and half out of the water. Everything out of the water is above your eye level. Everything in the water is below your eye level. The surface of the water is your eye level.

Convergence

When you look into the distance, you'll notice that objects appear to come together. This tendency of objects to seem to come together in the distance is called convergence. This term makes sense, as the objects appear to come together, or converge.

Convergence

Vanishing Point

If you look closely, you'll notice as the objects converge that there appears to be a point where the objects disappear. This point is called the vanishing point. Objects in linear perspective can appear to vanish towards anywhere between one to three vanishing points, which I'll explain further, later in this lesson..

Foreshortening

Another phenomenon occurs with perspective: as objects converge towards the vanishing point, the part of the object closest to the vanishing point appears smaller, while the part of the object that is closest to the picture plane appears larger. We call this foreshortening.

Foreshortening occurs when part of an object is closer to the viewer than another part of the same object, making it appear distorted, as if one piece were larger than another.

Below is an example of a figure with her hand extended. In real life, this person's hand is in proportion to the rest of her figure. However, when she extends it towards the camera (a surrogate for a viewer in this example) the hands appear to be much larger. This is the distorting effect of foreshortening on display.

You can see in the example of a house below, that the side facing us appears larger than the side of the house that is farther away. This is another example of foreshortening.

One, Two, and Three-Point Perspective
One-Point Perspective

Let's review the three different types of perspective. In one-point perspective our drawings will have one vanishing point.

All of our objects will be parallel to the picture plane. We will be facing them straight on.

Two-Point Perspective

In two-point perspective, our objects will be at an angle to the eye level. Our drawings will have two vanishing points at the far ends of the eye level. Depending upon how close we are to an object, the vanishing points may not even fit on our picture plane.

Three-Point Perspective

Three-point perspective is similar to two-point perspective. You start out with objects at an angle to the eye level and with vanishing points at the far end of the eye level. From there, we have an additional point either at top-center or bottom-center of our drawing, depending upon the effect we are going for.

Three-point perspective can be used to replicate the effects of looking up at a very tall building or down a very deep tunnel.

OK, so how do you begin to capture the effects of perspective in your work? I won't be asking you for formal perspective studies in this course—instead I want to focus on various techniques for drawing in perspective.

Drawing in Perspective
Contour Drawing

To learn how to draw in perspective, it's helpful to abstract the subject using just its contour, so we can focus on its basic form. The contour of your subject is its edges and can be described using line.

The contour of your subject is its basic structure. If you've ever looked at a topographical map, or a computer-generated 3D drawing of an object in which just the outline wire frame skeleton was showing, you've seen examples of a contour line. 

A contour drawing does not include surface patterns or decoration, nor does it show light and shadow. Contour describes the object's form; the contour of the subject would be the same no matter what color the object is or how much light is on it.

Contour and Edges

When drawing a contour line drawing, quickly use contour lines to block out the location of the outer edges of your subject, then add in the inside edges.

A contour line can be used to show not just the outer and inner edges of a form, but also its hidden edges.

Outer Edge

The outer edge is the contour line that makes up the outer shape of your form. If you were to make a cookie-cutter for the form you are currently drawing, it would be in the shape of the outer edge.

Keep in mind that sometimes it is easier to draw the outer edge of a form if you think about the shape of the negative space around it (indicated in red below).

Inner Edge

The inner edges are all of the visible edges of the object that are within the outer edge. 

See how these inner lines added to the diamond shape now give it the appearance of a cube? Inner edges really help define the structure of the object.

While discovering the inner edges of the objects, focus on the basic forms of the object. This will help you decide where to place your lines. You will understand where the important inner edges are, rather than getting caught up in every detail, every nook and every cranny.

Hidden Edge

Hidden edges are the edges of your three-dimensional object that you can't see. Sometimes, during the preliminary drawing or underpainting phase, it helps to draw in the hidden edges of your object to keep your drawing in proportion.

Drawing in the hidden edges helps ensure that our object really will take up space and hold mass. Drawing in the hidden edges forces you to concentrate on the three-dimensional qualities of your subject. You need to imagine the front, back, top, bottom, and sides of your object at once.

If we draw in the hidden edges and they don't add up to a three-dimensional form, then we know we have an error in our perspective. This means we should check our proportions.

Here is an example of an object drawn without enough thought given to its hidden edges:

Now, here is the same object drawn according to the rules of perspective. You can bet that hidden edges were drawn and later erased in this drawing:

Drawing Basic Forms

To help your perspective drawing, further develop your skill in drawing basic geometrical forms.

As we discussed in Lecture One, every subject can be broken down into basic forms such as cubes, spheres, cylinders, cones, and pyramids.

Cube, spheroid, cylinder, cone, pyramid

Even the most complex forms consist of multiple basic forms combined together. At the heart of any complex form is a number of basic forms. You will find that drawing objects in perspective is easier if you can break down your subject into their basic formal components.

Drawing a Cube

So, let's start with the most basic of the basic forms, the cube. The cube is the easiest to start with, as the planes that make up the cube are clearly visible. Cubes are also the simplest application for the laws of linear perspective.

When drawing a cube, I'll start by looking for parallel edges, and sketch out their placement.

When drawing a cube freehand from life, always look for parallel edges. Parallel edges are good references to check the angles in your drawing. Keep parallel edges relative to one another. Reference the edges of your picture plane to keep vertical and horizontal edges parallel.

I will sometimes add the hidden edges to check my perspective.

Afterwards, I will reinforce my outer and inner edges, making sure to take my eye level into account, as well as any foreshortening or convergence that occurs.

 

Drawing a Sphere

Spheres have inner edges as well. Think of a sphere as a series of planes interconnecting to create a perfectly round shape.

A sphere can be drawn using a similar method. First locate the outer edges of your subject.

To keep it simple, let's work out the farthest points to the top, bottom, left, and right. We will be able to draw a cross hair down the middle of our edges.

Make sure that the cross hair is in the middle, and all of the four quadrants are of equal size and distance from the center.

From there, slowly fill in the arcs between these points. Make sure to keep your lines an equal distance from the center.

Erase the guidelines in the center when you are finished.

You can see how a sphere fits inside of a cube in three dimensions.

Drawing an Ellipse

Here's a helpful approach for drawing an ellipse. You can alter the dimensions of your ellipse simply by changing the proportions between your corner points.

Change the angle of the ellipse to match the angle of the plane that it lies on.

When you are drawing your ellipses, make sure that the ends of the ellipse remain round and oval shaped. Avoid pinching the ends so that they become points, as illustrated below.

You can see how we built on the idea of the cube to lead us to the sphere. You will find that there are many similarities to these techniques to develop basic forms.

Drawing a Cylinder

A cylinder is made up of two parallel ellipses connected by vertical planes.

Look for parallel edges to keep your edges aligned.

You can see how the round side of the cylinder can be broken down into planes.

Drawing a Cone

To draw a cone, simply draw an ellipse for the base. Then, draw a vertical line originating from the center of the ellipse, and connect the far point to the two sides of the ellipse.

Drawing a Pyramid

Pyramids are similar to cubes and cones. Begin with a geometric shape with three or four points, such as the base of a cube or a triangle. Then draw a point originating from the center of the base and draw it in a line perpendicular to the base of the object.

Then connect the far point to all of the points around the base.

Proximity of Forms

When drawing your basic forms in perspective, pay close attention to where objects meet and touch. Be careful your objects do not sit above or inside a surface that they are supposed to rest on.

Remember to check parallel edges to make sure that they sit on the same plane! For instance, make sure that the bottom of an object and the table they are sitting on are parallel.

Beyond Linear Perspective

Of course, everything around us isn't positioned on a grid, or at least that's not how we see our surroundings. For us to draw objects around us, we will have to learn other ways to take measurements and to check our angles.

We will explore these methods in a moment. Don't forget to keep the basics of linear perspective in mind! If you want your drawings to look realistic, you must keep eye level in mind and be aware of foreshortening and convergence. Think about how many sides of an object you should be able to see from any one vantage point.

Checking Space and Distance

One quick way to make a quick measurement of your drawing is to use triangulation measure the angle created between the two longest distances.

I'll start a drawing by making a long straight line between the two farthest points in my composition.

The length of the line establishes the distance that these points will occupy in space, and its angle shows where two points exist, relative to one another.

I will then draw a line showing the second longest distance.

This will typically result in two sides of a triangle. You can use these quick guidelines to check the placement of your forms, as well as to provide a plumb line to compare angles. It quickly illustrates what space your drawing will take up on the page.

Once you've made these quick measurements and gestured out the basic mass, check your proportions before working into the contour.

Plumb Line

Another method you can use to make measurements of your drawing is a plumb line, to see how the measuring points of your object align with one another.

Plumb lines are straight lines that you can use to see how objects in your drawing relate to one another in space. A plumb line gives your drawing a reference point to work off.

Using a vertical or horizontal plumb line will keep your drawing balanced and proportionate.

Measuring Points

Using measuring points is a good way for you to maintain the angles and edges of your drawing proportional. A measuring point can be found any time a line starts, stops, changes direction, or is overlapped by another line.

Comparing these measuring points to one another and comparing them to your plumb line will help you keep your drawing proportionate.

Checking Proportions by Hand

I'll check my proportions by hand using the tip of my thumb and drawing tool.

A very good way of helping you take measurements to keep your drawing proportionate is to use your pencil and thumb. Hold your pencil like this:

Holding your pencil like this will measure the distance between the tip of your thumb and the tip of the pencil.

Now hold up your pencil to your still life:

Now you can determine how tall the bottle is by using your pencil and thumb as a reference point. The distance between your thumb and the tip of a pencil creates a unit of measure.

Make sure you hold your arm out straight and locked while you are measuring your subject, and keep the pencil parallel to your body with the distance from your eye to your thumb and pencil sighting device must remain constant—otherwise, you will get distorted measurements, and your drawing will appear distorted and out of proportion.

Checking Angles

One method to use when drawing angles is to hold your pencil up to the subject at the same angle, and compare that angle to the one you have drawn on your paper.

You can also hold your pencil vertically or horizontally, and compare the difference to the angle of the object.

Here's a video tutorial that shows this technique in action:

Compare Positive and Negative Space

Make sure to compare the positive and negative space and shapes in your form to be sure you are capturing the shapes that make up your subject.

Think of positive and negative space as pieces in a jigsaw puzzle. When you are putting together the pieces of a puzzle, you don't think of any one piece as more important than another. What is important is how the pieces interconnect to make up the larger picture. Positive and negative space is similar. Let's look at the still life I set up with a few objects I had in my studio:

Each of the objects in the still life has mass and makes up the positive space. Below, I have silhouetted the shape of the positive space in black. You can see that it forms a very distinct shape in which separate objects are connected.

Let's not forget that the negative space has a shape, too. Below, I have silhouetted the negative space (the space around the mass) and filled it in black:

In this photo (as in any drawing), an artist must notice how the positive and negative spaces make shapes and how the shapes interconnect.

Sometimes, it might actually be easier to concentrate on the shape of the negative space, rather than the positive shape. Of course, once you define the shape of the negative space you will have defined the shape of the positive shape as well; it's like two pieces in a puzzle.

Creating Depth

Now that we know how to draw basic forms, how can we create the illusion of space without necessarily having to rely upon linear perspective?

Creating Depth Using Scale

A good way to create depth in your drawing is by using scale. Using scale in this way is similar to the effects of convergence and foreshortening in linear perspective. Objects that are drawn larger will appear to be closer while objects that drawn smaller will appear to be farther away.

Notice that the figure that is closer to us appears larger than the figure in the background. If we held them next to each other they would be the same size. To create a sense of depth, we scaled the figure; the larger one will appear closer, and the smaller one will appear farther away.

Creating Depth Using Overlap

Overlapping forms is also a good way to communicate depth. It stands to reason that objects that are closer to you will overlap objects behind them when aligned.

One common mistake is forgetting that objects overlap. Watch the edges of your object and make sure that the shapes you draw clearly describe one object overlapping another. If your shapes don't overlap, then you leave the space ambiguous, making it hard for the viewer to decipher which of the objects is in front, and which is behind.

When composing your drawing, be aware of how your objects relate to one another. Be aware of the scale and the overlapping of forms.

Foreground, Mid-ground, and Background

Be aware of the foreground, mid-ground, and background placement of your objects. If all of your objects occupy the same space, there isn't much room to create depth. However if we divide our objects into areas of foreground, mid-ground, and background we are able to create a greater sense of depth.

If your drawing is lacking a sense of depth, consider adding something in the foreground or the background to really push the sense of depth and space.

Symmetry and Asymmetry

When setting up your composition, be aware of symmetry and asymmetry.

Symmetrical compositions are compositions where one side of the composition mirrors the other side, typically limiting eye movement and keeping the viewer's focus on a central location.

Approximate symmetry

Asymmetry is when a composition is not uniformly balanced. Differences between one side and the other force the viewer's gaze to move about the composition.

Asymmetry

Open and Closed Composition

An open composition refers to one where objects are cropped so that part of them exceeds the perimeter of the picture plane. This way the composition creates the impression of going on past the picture, as if you can only see a part of it.

Open composition

A closed composition is completely contained within the perimeter of the picture plane. The forms are drawn closer together, creating a much more unified feel.

Closed composition

Rhythm and Pattern

You should also be aware of the basic forms of your objects and how they relate to each other. You can create visual harmony by the placement of different, often repeated basic forms to create a rhythm to your composition.

You can create dynamics in your composition by disrupting the pattern with a contrasting element or accent. Notice the accent created by the toy cube in this rhythmic sea of cassettes.

Discussion Share your thoughts and opinions on drawing with other students. Exercise Practice working with perspective and composition with a series of pencil drawings.